Introduction

Late medieval Britain (c. 13th–15th centuries) developed a complex pipeline to extract precious metals and turn them into coinage :the lifeblood of the medieval economy. This process spanned the remote mines of England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, the transport networks that carried raw bullion, the royal mints where coins were struck, and the guarded treasuries where gold and silver were stored for the realm. Each stage involved specific officials and workers, from miners laboring underground to moneyers hammering coins by hand. The Crown exercised tight control over gold and silver production, reflecting their critical importance for royal finance and trade. In the following sections, we walk step-by-step through this chain – exploring who ran the mines, how miners lived and worked day-to-day, how the metals were transported, who oversaw coin minting, and how the kingdom’s treasure was safeguarded – with attention to England and its Celtic neighbors (Wales, Scotland, and Ireland) in the late medieval era.

Mining Precious Metals in Late Medieval Britain

Royal Control of the Mines

In late medieval Britain, precious metal mining was typically a small-scale affair, but certain rich deposits of silver (and to a lesser extent gold) drew intense interest from the Crown. After 1279, English kings asserted a royal prerogative over gold and silver mines, effectively claiming ownership of all such “mines of the Crown.” This meant that whoever was in charge of the mines usually did so on behalf of the monarch. For example, King Edward I directly opened silver-lead mines at Bere Ferrers in Devon in 1292 and ran them as a state enterprise for over 50 years. Royal officers – often called keepers, wardens or masters of the mines – were appointed to oversee operations, hire workers, and enforce the Crown’s rights.

Key Silver Sources

England had no giant silver lodes like those in Germany or the Alps, but a few sites yielded significant output. Devon’s mines, notably at Bere Ferrers (Tamar Valley) and nearby Combe Martin, became the primary sources of silver in England (and effectively Wales) during this period. At their peak in the late 13th century these mines produced over 20,000 ounces of silver per year for the Crown, an enormous sum fueling royal mints and war chests. Elsewhere, smaller silver outputs came as a by-product of lead mining in upland areas: the Pennines (Derbyshire Peak District, Yorkshire Dales), North Wales, and the Mendip Hills all had networks of independent lead miners who occasionally found silver in the lead ore (galena). In those regions, mining was often a part-time activity for miner-farmers.

Life in the Devon Silver Mines

Up to 300–400 miners at a time were engaged in extracting ore for the King in Devon. Many of these workers were not local to Devon; records show that “miners, many of them immigrants, some pressed into service,” were brought in to get the operation running. Skilled miners from traditional mining districts like the Derbyshire lead fields and North Wales were recruited; for instance, in 1296 Edward I even sent miners from the Minera lead mines of Wales to bolster the Devon workforce. Initially, most came without families, living in makeshift lodgings. Over time, a new settlement, Bere Alston, grew near Bere Ferrers to provide housing, ale, and supplies.

By the early 14th century, some miners’ families joined them or local women married into the mining community, creating a more permanent population around the mines. Women and daughters helped with ore-processing tasks; for instance, washing and sorting the crushed ore, or working at the smelting hearths to extract silver from lead. The Crown provided no housing or food for its mine laborers, and the environment was dangerous, with risks of flooding, toxic fumes, and physical accidents.

In 1305, several dozen miners drowned in a sudden inundation, a tragic reminder of the ever-present danger. Nevertheless, the relatively good earnings attracted workers. The Crown attempted technological innovation, building a 16 km leat (water channel) to power water-wheel driven pumps at the Bere Ferrers mines.

Post-Black Death Changes and Regional Variation

The Black Death struck these mining communities hard. Post-plague, the Crown shifted to leasing the mines to nobles and merchants. The Bere Ferrers silver mines were controlled by Queen Isabella, John of Gaunt, and others. Disputes, like those involving Sir Roger Champernowne, reflected the value of mine control. Over time, production declined as easily accessible silver veins were exhausted.

Wales, Scotland, and Ireland: Wales had many lead veins, and skilled Welsh miners were even conscripted by Edward I. Scotland began gold mining under James IV in the early 1500s, notably at Crawford Moor. One nugget was made into a sword hilt for the King. Irish mining of silver or gold was negligible; most precious metals were imported.

Transporting Ore and Bullion

From Mine to Furnace

The journey began with smelting raw galena ore into lead “bullion” at the mine. Cupellation – a refining process – followed, separating the silver. This reduced the volume for transport.

Overland and River Transport

Transport relied on packhorses and ox-carts for overland hauling and riverboats or coastal vessels when possible. Locals (even women like Alice de Filley) were hired for short-distance hauling. Longer shipments were handled by trusted couriers or soldiers.

Security and Risk

Security was paramount. Bandits and pirates were real threats. Armed escorts or royal orders ensured safer passage. Some silver from Devon, for instance, traveled via Plymouth by sea to the Tower Mint in London. Merchant routes also moved imported bullion from the Continent, which often surpassed domestic output.

Minting Coins: The Medieval Mint Process

Centralization of Minting

By the 14th century, most English coinage came from the Tower of London. Scotland centralized minting in Edinburgh, and Ireland’s intermittent minting centered in Dublin. The Crown tightly controlled all operations.

Mint Officials and Staff

• Master of the Mint: Oversaw operations, contracts, and bullion sourcing.
• Warden of the Mint: Quality control and auditing.
• Comptroller: Kept accounts.
• Moneyers: Skilled coin-strikers.
• Assayers, engravers, smiths: Technical staff.

Minting Steps

1. Melting & Refining: Bullion was melted and alloyed (e.g., sterling standard = 92.5% silver).
2. Creating Blanks: Blanks were cut from hammered bars. Overweight ones were trimmed.
3. Striking: Designs were hammered into each blank using engraved dies. Accidents and errors were common.
4. Quality Control: The Trial of the Pyx ensured coins met standards. Selected coins were melted and assayed.

Culture of the Mint

Mint staff often lived on-site, such as Mint Street in the Tower. Security was strict. Theft or fraud equaled treason. England’s coinage earned a reputation for quality, giving rise to the term “sterling.”

Storing and Safeguarding the Realm’s Treasure

Royal Treasuries

Originally stored at Westminster Abbey, treasure was moved to the Tower of London after a major theft in 1303. The Tower housed mint output, bullion reserves, and royal plate.

Guards and Protocols

Vaults had iron-bound chests, multiple locks, and armed guards. Officials like the Treasurer of the Exchequer managed deposits and withdrawals. Duplicate keys were held by multiple officials for accountability.

Use and Movement of Treasure

Gold and silver funded wars, diplomacy, and state projects. When needed, coins were moved under guard, sometimes even pawned. In Scotland, treasure was stored at Edinburgh Castle; in Ireland, at Dublin Castle.

Strategic Significance

Holding the treasury meant holding power. During civil unrest, controlling the Tower (and thus the mint and treasury) was key. The Wars of the Roses saw rivals scramble for this control.

Conclusion

From the depths of Welsh and Devonshire mines to the high towers of London and Edinburgh, the journey of medieval gold and silver was a grand process of extraction, craftsmanship, and control.

Every step in coin production was deliberately organized:

• The Crown or feudal lords oversaw mines, employing miners who worked in dark, dangerous conditions.
• The metals were transported under guard through forests and ports.
• Skilled moneyers minted coins using hammer and die, following strict protocols.
• Treasuries guarded the output in fortified vaults, ensuring the kingdom’s solvency.

Including Wales, Scotland, and Ireland enriches the picture of how precious metal was managed. These metals were the treasure of nations, and their journey from mine shaft to hammered coin reveals the enduring value – and effort – behind gold and silver.

For modern readers, especially investors, this story reveals not just the economic worth of these metals but the infrastructure of trust and human labor that upheld them. Many of the institutions we take for granted today: standard weights, mint marks, treasury vaults – began in these medieval efforts to ensure coinage was honest and secure.